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The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia.[4][5] From equal status with men in ancient times[6] through the low points of the medieval period,[7] to the promotion of equal rights
by many reformers, the history of women in India has been eventful. In
modern India, women have held high offices in India including that of
the President, Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha and Leader of the Opposition. As of 2011, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha
(Lower House of the parliament) were women. However, women in India
continue to face atrocities such as rape, acid throwing, dowry killings
while young girls are forced into prostitution; as of late rape has seen
a sharp increase following several high profile cases of young girls
brutally raped in public areas.[8][9][10] According to a global poll conducted by Thomson Reuters, India is the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world for women,[11][12] and the worst country for women among the G20 countries.[13]
There are very few texts specifically dealing with the role of women[20] an important exception is the Stri Dharma Paddhati of Tryambakayajvan, an official at Thanjavur c. 1730. The text compiles strictures on women's behaviour dating back to the Apastamba sutra (c. 4th century BCE).[21] The opening verse goes:
According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic period.[22] However in approximately 500 B.C., the status of women began to decline with the Smritis (esp. Manusmriti), and with the Islamic invasion of Babur and the Mughal empire and Christianity later curtailing women's freedom and rights.[7]
Although reform movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to religious orders, by and large women in India faced confinement and restrictions.[22] The practice of child marriages is believed to have started around the sixth century.[23]
Krishna at Goddesss Radharani's feet
Indian women's position in society further deteriorated during the medieval period,[7][14] when Sati, child marriages and a ban on remarriage by widows became part of social life in some communities in India. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent brought purdah to Indian society. Among the Rajputs of Rajasthan, the Jauhar was practised. In some parts of India, the Devadasis or temple women were sexually exploited. Polygamy was widely practised, especially among Hindu Kshatriya rulers.[23] In many Muslim families, women were restricted to Zenana areas of the house.
In spite of these conditions, some women became prominent in the fields of politics, literature, education and religion.[7] Razia Sultana became the only woman monarch to have ever ruled Delhi. The Gond queen Durgavati ruled for fifteen years before losing her life in a battle with Mughal emperor Akbar's general Asaf Khan in 1564. Chand Bibi defended Ahmednagar against the powerful Mughal forces of Akbar in the 1590s. Jehangir's wife Nur Jehan effectively wielded imperial power, and was recognized as the real power behind the Mughal throne. The Mughal princesses Jahanara and Zebunnissa were well-known poets, and also influenced the ruling powers. Shivaji's mother, Jijabai, was queen regent because of her ability as a warrior and an administrator. In South India, many women administered villages, towns, and divisions, and ushered in new social and religious institutions.[23]
The Bhakti movements tried to restore women's status and questioned certain forms of oppression.[22] Mirabai, a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement figures. Other female saint-poets from this period included Akka Mahadevi, Rami Janabai and Lal Ded. Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as the Mahanubhav, Varkari and many others were principle movements within the Hindu fold openly advocating social justice and equality between men and women.
Immediately following the Bhakti movements, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs, preached equality between men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to lead religious assemblies; to lead congregational hymn singing called Kirtan or Bhajan; to become members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the battlefield; to have equality in marriage, and to have equality in Amrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus also preached against the discrimination against women.
Contents
History
Ancient India
Scholars believe that in ancient India, women enjoyed equal status with men in all aspects of life.[14] However, some have contrary views.[15] Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period.[16][17] Rigvedic verses suggest that women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their own husbands.[18] Scriptures such as the Rig Veda and Upanishads mention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitreyi.[19]There are very few texts specifically dealing with the role of women[20] an important exception is the Stri Dharma Paddhati of Tryambakayajvan, an official at Thanjavur c. 1730. The text compiles strictures on women's behaviour dating back to the Apastamba sutra (c. 4th century BCE).[21] The opening verse goes:
- mukhyo dharmaH smr^tiShu vihito bhartr^shushruShANam hi :
- women are enjoined to be of service to their husbands.
According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic period.[22] However in approximately 500 B.C., the status of women began to decline with the Smritis (esp. Manusmriti), and with the Islamic invasion of Babur and the Mughal empire and Christianity later curtailing women's freedom and rights.[7]
Although reform movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to religious orders, by and large women in India faced confinement and restrictions.[22] The practice of child marriages is believed to have started around the sixth century.[23]
Medieval period
In spite of these conditions, some women became prominent in the fields of politics, literature, education and religion.[7] Razia Sultana became the only woman monarch to have ever ruled Delhi. The Gond queen Durgavati ruled for fifteen years before losing her life in a battle with Mughal emperor Akbar's general Asaf Khan in 1564. Chand Bibi defended Ahmednagar against the powerful Mughal forces of Akbar in the 1590s. Jehangir's wife Nur Jehan effectively wielded imperial power, and was recognized as the real power behind the Mughal throne. The Mughal princesses Jahanara and Zebunnissa were well-known poets, and also influenced the ruling powers. Shivaji's mother, Jijabai, was queen regent because of her ability as a warrior and an administrator. In South India, many women administered villages, towns, and divisions, and ushered in new social and religious institutions.[23]
The Bhakti movements tried to restore women's status and questioned certain forms of oppression.[22] Mirabai, a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement figures. Other female saint-poets from this period included Akka Mahadevi, Rami Janabai and Lal Ded. Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as the Mahanubhav, Varkari and many others were principle movements within the Hindu fold openly advocating social justice and equality between men and women.
Immediately following the Bhakti movements, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs, preached equality between men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to lead religious assemblies; to lead congregational hymn singing called Kirtan or Bhajan; to become members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the battlefield; to have equality in marriage, and to have equality in Amrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus also preached against the discrimination against women.
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